The United Kingdom presents a complex picture regarding modern slavery. While recognised for its strong governmental response and efforts to address the issue, the country still contends with significant prevalence and systemic challenges. The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that on any given day in 2021, there were 122,000 people living in modern slavery in the UK. This equates to a prevalence of 1.8 people for every thousand people in the country, placing the UK among the nations with the lowest prevalence of modern slavery in the region and globally. Despite this relatively low rate, the issue remains prevalent, with particular gaps in protections for vulnerable groups such as migrant workers and the absence of a National Action Plan or strategy.
Modern slavery in the UK manifests in several forms, primarily sexual exploitation and forced labour. A common misconception is that modern slavery predominantly involves Eastern European women, but awareness is often lacking regarding the plight of internally trafficked individuals. Trafficking affects people from various backgrounds, and education on the subject in the UK is considered poor, with many holding stereotypical views. Forced labour accounts for approximately two-fifths of modern-day slavery cases in Britain and is frequently organised by criminal gangs who treat workers as commodities. Victims are often brought into the country and put to work in sectors such as car washes, nail bars, salons, and restaurants.
Law enforcement agencies have historically struggled to recognise forced labour as slavery, often viewing it as poor working conditions or a civil matter between an employee and employer rather than a crime involving trafficking. This has led to perpetrators going unpunished, reinforcing the idea that they can operate with impunity. While up until recently, few police forces had the knowledge or capacity to deal with it properly, the situation is evolving. The National Referral Mechanism (NRM) is the UK's framework for identifying and supporting potential victims of modern slavery and human trafficking. Official statistics highlight a gendered aspect, with 78 per cent of all individuals referred to the NRM in 2022 being male. In that year, Albanian nationals overtook UK nationals as the most commonly referred nationality, with Eritrean nationals being third.
Forced labour exploitation is the most common reason for referral to the NRM, accounting for 30 per cent (2,141) of potential referrals in 2022. That same year, the UK Modern Slavery helpline, run by Unseen, received over 7,300 calls for help, with a 134 per cent increase in cases of labour exploitation compared to previous years. Forced labour is reported across many sectors, including farming, hospitality, beauty, construction, manufacturing, car washes, domestic service, and other service industries, many of which rely heavily on migrant workers.
Recent evidence shows exploitation within the government’s seasonal worker visa scheme, which expanded rapidly from 2,500 visas in its 2019 pilot to 47,000 in 2023. Investigations in 2022 revealed cases involving the exploitation of Nepali and Indonesian migrant workers, who were forced to pay extortionate fees to agents working for UK-licensed recruitment companies to secure jobs on fruit farms under this scheme.
The definition of slavery extends beyond historical conceptions. Slavery is a form of dependent labour performed by a non-family member, where the slave is deprived of personal liberty and the right to move about geographically. There are limits on their capacity to make choices regarding occupation and sexual partners. Slavery is usually involuntary, and when almost all these restrictive characterizations apply, it is termed "severe." Slaves were historically generated through capture in war, kidnapping, punishment for crime or debt, or being sold by relatives. While some historical forms of slavery were considered "mild," modern slavery encompasses severe exploitation.
Modern slavery in the UK also includes organ trafficking. In 2022, Nigerian politician Ike Ekweremadi and his wife were convicted under the Modern Slavery Act for organ trafficking—the first conviction of its kind. They brought a man from Lagos to the UK to become an organ donor for their daughter in exchange for £7,000 and the promise of establishing a life in the UK.
The UK's involvement in modern slavery is not confined to its borders. As one of the world's largest economies, it is exposed to the risk of modern slavery through the products it imports. Nearly two-thirds of all forced labour cases are linked to global supply chains, with workers exploited across a wide range of sectors and at every stage of the supply chain. Most forced labour occurs in the lowest tiers of supply chains, in the extraction of raw materials and production stages. The UK imports $26.1 billion worth of products at risk of being made using forced labour annually.
Systemic challenges persist in supporting victims. Concerns have been raised that the government provision of support through the NRM is insufficient. There are shocking examples of persons who have been re-trafficked because it can be a better option than becoming homeless once financial support ends. Many slave masters deliberately leave their victims with nothing so that, if they try to escape, they will be left in desperate circumstances. Charities like Hope For Justice and Unseen UK work to raise awareness and push for additional assistance for victims, but systemic changes are needed.
Historical resistance to slavery, as highlighted in the stories of enslaved individuals, took many forms, including military service, entrepreneurship, and religion. These narratives illustrate the resilience and agency of enslaved people across different regions and time periods. Comparisons can also be made between enslaved life and the experiences of free persons of colour, who, despite sometimes enjoying more privileges than other people of colour, never achieved equal citizenship.
Conclusion
Modern slavery in the United Kingdom is a multifaceted issue with significant domestic and international dimensions. While the UK has a relatively low prevalence rate compared to other regions, it faces substantial challenges, including high rates of forced labour, exploitation of migrant workers, and systemic gaps in victim support. The issue spans various sectors and is influenced by global supply chains. Addressing modern slavery requires coordinated efforts from government, law enforcement, and civil society to protect vulnerable individuals and dismantle the networks that perpetuate this crime.